Treating Long Head of Biceps (LHB) Pathology

Treating Long Head of Biceps (LHB) Pathology Abstract Background Clinical examination of the shoulder joint has gained attention in recent years as clinicians aim to practice with an evidence-based and accurate clinical examination of the biceps tendon. There is an increased desire for proper diagnosis while simultaneously minimizing costly imaging procedures and unnecessary procedures. Thus, the purpose of this study is to create a decision tree analysis that enables the development of a clinical algorithm for diagnosing and subsequently treating long head of biceps (LHB) pathology. Methods A literature review of level one and two diagnostic studies was conducted to extract characteristics of clinical tests for LHB pathology through a systematic review of Pubmed, Medline, Ovid and Cochrane Review databases. Tests were combined in series and parallel to determine final sensitivities and specificities, and positive and negative likelihood ratios were determined for each combination using a subjective pre-test probability. The gold-standard for diagnosis in all studies included was arthroscopy or arthrotomy. Results Seven studies regarding LHB clinical diagnostic testing met inclusion criteria. The optimal testing modality was use of the uppercut test combined with the tenderness to palpation of the biceps tendon test. This combination achieved a sensitivity of 88.4% when performed in parallel and a specificity of 93.8% when performed in series. These tests used in combination optimize post-test probability accuracy greater than any single individual test; adding a third test decreases accuracy. Conclusion Performing the uppercut test and biceps groove tenderness to palpation test together has the highest sensitivity and specificity of known physical examinations maneuvers to aid in the diagnosis of long head of the biceps pathology as compared to diagnostic arthroscopy (The PEC exam). A decision tree analysis aides in the PEC exam diagnostic accuracy post testing based on the ordinal scale pre-test probability. A quick reference guide is provided to use in the clinical setting. Level of Evidence: II Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Key Words: biceps tendon; long head; physical examination; pathology; diagnosis; shoulder examination Introduction The physical examination is a requisite and inexpensive component to medical diagnosis. The shoulder examination, in particular, encompasses a myriad of special provocative maneuvers, displaying a wide range of sensitivities and specificities pertaining to diagnostic accuracy. Accurate understanding from the correct sequence of maneuvers or tests increases diagnostic yield. In the modern era, clinical diagnosis heavily relies on imaging modalities including ultrasound (US), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), arthrography, and arthroscopy to diagnose shoulder pathology21,33. Current gold standard diagnostic testing options have limitations. MRI has poor statistical characteristics for diagnostic accuracy as it very reader and technician dependent, adds both direct and indirect costs, and may be less accurate than the physical exam37. Diagnostic arthroscopy is successful in diagnosing intra-articular pathology, but is limited in visualization for extra-articular pathology, is costly, and increases patient risk37. Increased use of diagnostic imaging contributes to rising health care costs14,30,32,38. According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), diagnostic imaging costs are significant, accounting for up to 40% of overall healthcare expenditure increases over the past 10 years25. Advanced imaging techniques res ult in not only higher direct costs, but may increase indirect costs and jeopardize outcomes36,39. As the healthcare landscape transitions to cost minimization and value-based healthcare delivery, the development of an efficient, cost-effective, shoulder examination is desired. Shoulder examinations have poor sensitivity and/or specificity that makes diagnosing certain pathologies difficult4,28,30,33. Thus, evaluating the long head of the biceps brachii tendon (LHB) pathology with high-yield examination maneuvers can aid physicians through increasing the accuracy of shoulder diagnoses and aid in surgical decision making. Previously published studies focused on the following questions: whether physical examination special tests correlate with surgical findings; whether imaging correlates with surgical findings; and whether physical exam tests are accurate enough to diagnose pathology effectively5,9,10,26,28,29,33. Currently, there is a need to develop new algorithms to provide shoulder practitioners with a practical but comprehensive evidence-based approach to diagnose LHB pathology during an office visit and to further reduce the need for diagnostic imaging20,22,34. The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review and a secondary sensitivity analysis based on pre-formed likelihood scenarios based on the history of present illness (HPI) past medical history (PMH), and epidemiology to provide clinicians a practical, evidence-based clinical (P.E.C) physical examination algorithm to accurately diagnose patients with LHB pathology. Specific objectives were to: compile the peak performing physical exam tests extracted from level I and II studies within the English literature; synthesizing the most accurate test combination; develop a clinical algorithm to provide quantify LHB diagnostic accuracy; and create a diagnostic accuracy reference guide. Materials and Methods A systematic literature review with the terms proximal, biceps, clinical and examination in the Medline database through the Pubmed, Medline, Ovid and Cochrane Review databases was completed in May 2015. The searches included the use of Boolean operators such as AND and OR. The databases were scrutinized independently by three authors. Inclusion criteria included studies that were focused on physical examination tests and compared to the diagnostic gold standard from Level I and II studies published in scientific journals. Exclusion criteria were: non-English, non-full text, level III of evidence or lower, related to superior labrum anterior to posterior (SLAP) lesions, investigated rheumatoid arthritis patients, or did not compare tests to a validated gold standard. The validated gold standard utilized for all studies and systematic reviews included were diagnostic arthroscopy or arthrotomy to confirm anatomical findings. Relevant studies were independently assessed, and conflicting studies were included only if there were consensus amongst the authors. References of included studies were additionally evaluated to identify additional articles for inclusion. Applicable data was extracted by reverse calculation where the information desired was not directly stated. Using PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews (Fig. 1), our original search retrieved 2,086 studies from Pubmed, Medline, Ovid and Cochrane Review databases. Twenty-eight additional records were included through a review of references from each article included in the systematic review. After duplicates were removed, the initial search yielded 2,112 studies. Subsequently, 1,689 studies were removed for irrelevant titles or abstracts, and an additional 362 were excluded because they were not in English. Lastly, the remaining 63 articles were assessed for eligibility; 14 were excluded for non-full text, 22 were excluded for not being level I or II study, and 18 were excluded for non-relevant data. The data extracted was summarized and analyzed according to the statistical methods described by Eusebi et al. focusing on test specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value12. Next, clinical tests were combined to assess improved diagnostic accuracy. The clinical tests were applied both in parallel and in series. The first approach in parallel analysis, consists of two special tests performed in theory at approximately the same time. The parallel analysis can interpret the findings in an and or or technique. When a parallel analysis is performed in an or technique, the overall sensitivity of the two tests is greater than the sensitivity of either special test alone. This parallel analysis allows for two opportunities to observe the potential pathology. If both tests are negative then it is considered a negative finding in the algorithm and rule out the pathology, but if just one of the two special tests is positive then it is not considered a negative result in parallel analysis. The second approach in series analysis, consists of two special tests performed; however, the overall negative or positive finding depends on the outcomes of both special tests. By utilizing two special tests in an and technique in series, the specificity for both tests is higher than for either test alone. If both special tests are positive, then it is considered a positive result. If either special test is negative, then the in series analysis cannot be considered a positive result. In order to calculate the post-test diagnostic probability of LHB diagnosis, we performed calculations for each test with four pre-test probability options. Pre-test probability is defined as the probability of a patient having the target disorder before a diagnostic test result is known. Therefore, pre-test probability is based on patient history, subjective complaints, epidemiologic probability and the medical opinion of the provider ordering the test. The ordinal scale created has four different probabilities: very unlikely 0.2 (20%); unlikely 0.4 (40%); likely 0.6 (60%); and very likely 0.8 (80%). The physical exam test combination with the optimal test performance was identified (named the PEC exam). A decision tree analysis was developed to determine the PEC exam diagnostic accuracy post testing based on the ordinal scale pre-test probability. A table was created as a simple reference guide to use in the clinical setting. Results The initial electronic database search retrieved 2,112 unique articles, with 28 obtained from a manual search of reference lists. Of these, 2051 studies were found unrelated to the topic of interest based titles and abstract review, resulting in 63 full-text articles evaluated according to selection criteria. Fifty-four articles were excluded for the following: full-text unavailable (N=14), not a Level I/II study (N=22), and irrelevant data after full-text review (N=18). Seven relevant (N = 7) articles were identified through the systematic review and scrutinized (Supplementary Table S1). From the reviewed articles, special tests and modalities evaluated included Speeds, Yergasons, bicipital groove tenderness, uppercut, bear hug, belly press, OBriens, and anesthetic injection. Statistical characteristics for each test are documented in (Supplementary Table S2). The bear hug and uppercut special tests demonstrated the highest sensitivity for the physical examination special maneuvers (79%, 73% respectively), whereas the belly press and Yergasons tests demonstrated the lower spectrum of sensitivity (31%, 41% respectively). The belly press and OBriens special tests demonstrated the highest special test specificities (85%, 84% respectively), whereas the bear hug and bicipital groove tenderness tests showed the lowest specificities (60%, 72% respectively). Diagnostic ultrasound, used as a reference and also included to study as a potential application for in-office point of service testing, demonstrated the highest sensitivity and specificity of all statistical characteris tics revealed through the review (Sensitivity 88%, Specificity 98%). In series and in parallel assessments determined two physical exam tests improved test performance over any single test. Performing more than two physical examination tests decreased diagnostic accuracy. The uppercut test combined with the tenderness to palpation of the LHB test provided the highest physical examination accuracy for diagnosing pathology at the proximal biceps. This combination has a parallel testing sensitivity of 88.3% and a series specificity of 93.3%. We characterize this as the PEC exam. Additional combinations, including diagnostic ultrasound, are reported in (Supplementary Table S3). The uppercut test and diagnostic ultrasound in parallel revealed the highest sensitivity (97%). Each of the Speeds, Yergasons and upper cut tests paired with diagnostic ultrasound all achieved the highest specificity (100%). A decision tree analysis aides in the PEC exam diagnostic accuracy post testing based on the ordinal scale pre-test probability (Fig. 2). A quick reference guide is provided to use in the clinical setting (Fig. 3). Discussion LHB pathology is an increasingly recognized generator of shoulder pain and functional impairment in symptomatic patients. Physicians are faced with diagnostic challenges due to non-specific clinical presentations and lack of direction based on physical exam findings. As such, the purpose of this study was to perform a decision-tree analysis to create a clinical algorithm to diagnose biceps pathology with increased accuracy compared to previously reported diagnostic examinations 8,11,15-17,19,22,24. This was achieved by conducting a systematic literature review including only level I and II studies. Special test sensitivities and specificities were combined in series and parallel. Analysis showed that the uppercut test combined with tenderness to palpation of the LHB within the bicipital groove provided the highest accuracy physical exam tests for diagnosing pathology at the proximal biceps. Application of this PEC exam, coupled with pre-test probability assignments can now provide cl inicians diagnostic confidence in the office. In equivocal cases, point of care ultrasound examination can further improve diagnostic accuracy2,31. Applying the PEC algorithm provides a simple, efficient and reproducible physical examination protocol for shoulder clinicians yielding an accurate diagnosis in the clinic. Now, with the calculated accuracy reference guide available, a clinician may rely on the office-based diagnosis with improved certainty and may consider forgoing advanced imaging, thereby avoiding additional cost, treatment delays and possible patient risk. In order to cover an array of clinical scenarios, we used a pretest probability range of 20-80% at 20% increments according to the likelihood of pathology. After addressing the disease prevalence, HPI and PMH, the pre-test probability likelihood of long head bicep pathology was appointed. If the pre-test probability was above 90% or below 10%, we then assume there is no need to perform additional testing with acceptance of a 10% error rate. Combination of physical examination techniques demonstrated that the uppercut test combined with tenderness to palpation of the LHB provided the highest accuracy for diagnosing pathology at the proximal biceps. This combination has a parallel testing sensitivity of 88.3% and a series specificity of 93.3% (Supplementary Table S3). The values of the test used in series and in parallel were definitive and overpowered the value of the pre-test probability assessment in many clinical scenarios. This adds credibility to a reproducible, simplified two-step P.E.C. examination without the need for additional maneuvers to be performed. Furthermore, we feel that the application of the PEC test is generalizable to non-shoulder specialists, facilitating both increased utilization and diagnostic accuracy of LHB disease. Many studies have explored the accuracy of physical examination and special test maneuvers in diagnosing LHB pathology with limited conclusions regarding its efficiency18,22,23,37. However, our study is unique in that it additionally produces a diagnostic tool, both enabling accurate point of care diagnosis of LHB injury and minimizing the need for advanced imaging. The value of the P.E.C. examination corroborates with current clinical recommendations. In 2009, Churgay et al. stated that bicipital groove point tenderness is the most common isolated finding during physical examination of patients with biceps tendinitis, and that ultrasonography is the best modality for evaluating isolated biceps tendinopathy extra-articularly3,6. With regards to diagnostic accuracy and fluidity of exam, our study revealed that the best maneuver combination for diagnosing biceps pathology are the uppercut test and tenderness to palpation. Incidentally, our study has also concluded that use of ultrasound after equivocal physical examination findings improves the sensitivity and specificity of all evaluated test combinations. Unlike past studies, we incorporated a diagnostic algorithm to aid efficient shoulder examination and to increase physician confidence in biceps tendon diagnosis. In addition to enhancing diagnostic accuracy, development of a value-based clinical decision pathway may play a small, but essential role in the improvement of the current state of the healthcare system. High-yield, algorithm-derived examination like our proposed sequence further alleviate the number of follow-up visits needed until diagnosis, which often delay expedient care delivery35,39. Moreover, simplified diagnostic algorithms may also result in cost reduction and decreased iatrogenic injury associated with unnecessary advanced imaging studies. A shoulder examination that provides accurate diagnosis provides multiple advantages that benefits both physicians and the healthcare system with the ultimate goal of improving patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that clinical decisions should be tailored to patient clinical presentation, and that MRI may be a more appropriate diagnostic modality for surgical candidates or patients with inconclusive preliminary workup. These findings provide evidence towards the current trend in orthopedic surgery education as more national conferences and residency programs are increasing musculoskeletal ultrasound (US) courses incorporated into their curriculums. Accordingly, the American Medical Association for Sports Medicine has endorsed increased integration of sports US into sports medicine fellowship curriculums13. Studies have proposed that proficient level diagnostic skills may be quickly obtained by the inexperienced orthopedist with an established examination protocol1. Murphy et al. conducted a study investigating diagnostic improvement in four orthopedic surgeons who attended a formal training course to identify and size tears on the rotator cuff through US. In the later training period, results showed positive predictive value improving by 16%27. An additional study by Roy and colleagues also demonstrated improved diagnostic accuracy of US irrespective of whether a trained radiologist, sonographer or orthopedic surgeon operated the device32. US requires further studies to evaluate its cost effectiveness compared to advanced imaging techniques like MRI or arthroscopy, but an algorithm(Fig. 3) may provide a simple evidence-based decision analysis for physicians to rely on when considering LHB as the major source of pain. This study, however, also has its limitations. Foremost, a majority of the studies included in our data collection did not solely focus on LHB pathology. True positives may have included superior labrum, anterior to posterior (SLAP) lesions within the diagnosis of biceps pathology. Studies may have also incorporated biceps pathology into other diagnostic categories (e.g. impingement). Therefore, it was difficult to find studies which solely focused on diagnostic accuracy of LHB pathology. Additionally, only level I or II studies were considered for diagnosis, which routinely compare diagnostic testing algorithm (DTA) to the gold standard of diagnosis. Unfortunately, there is no clearly defined arthroscopic findings for diagnosis of LHB pathology. To aid in any study misinterpretations due to inaccurate language translations, only articles originally written in English were evaluated, and only published articles were included. This may have introduced both publication and/or selection bias. A method to eliminate some of these potential biases would be to perform a truly systematic review and meta-analysis combining results from multiple studies; however, even this can be hindered by bias with the lack of currently published methods for meta-analyses evaluating diagnostic testing. Another future direction for this study may be to further evaluate the accuracy of new special tests described to evaluate long head of the biceps pathology, specifically the uppercut test. Currently the uppercut test has only been described and analyzed in a single level I or II study that we utilized for our algorithm24. Further validation testing for this specific test may be warranted. Conclusion Performing the uppercut test and biceps groove tenderness to palpation test together has the highest sensitivity and specificity of known physical examinations maneuvers to aid in the diagnosis of long head of the biceps pathology as compared to diagnostic arthroscopy (The PEC exam). A decision tree analysis aides in the PEC exam diagnostic accuracy post testing based on the ordinal scale pre-test probability. A quick reference guide is provided to use in the clinical setting. References 1. Amoo-Achampong K, Nwachukwu BU, McCormick F. An orthopedists guide to shoulder ultrasound: a systematic review of examination protocols. Phys Sportsmed. 2016 Aug 22;1-10. doi: 10.1080/00913847.2016.1222224 2. Ardic F, Kahraman Y, Kacar M, Kahraman MC, Findikoglu G, Yorgancioglu ZR. 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Am J Sports Med. 2012 May;40(5):1144-7. doi:10.1177/0363546512436944 Figure and Table Legends Figure 1: PRISMA Systemic Review Flow Diagram: This figure displays the process and rationale behind why studies were omitted from the systemic review. Figure 2: (A) Diagnostic Combination to Rule in Pathology: These findings demonstrate that the combination of tests that best help rule out pathology are the TTP + Uppercut test when performed in series. If both tests are negative in a scenario with a low pre-test probability (i.e. prevalence), then there is a very small chance of pathology being present. TTP = Tenderness to palpation (of the long head of the biceps within the bicipital groove); Diamond = TTP + Uppercut in series, square = TTP + Speeds in Series, triangle = TTP + Yergasons in Series (B) Diagnostic Combination to Rule Out Pathology: These findings demonstrate that the combination of TTP + upper

Gambling †the economy, household and society Essay

The subject of gambling has been a hot subject of debate amongst politicians for many years. The concept of people waging something of value for something not guaranteed is something that baffles many non-gamblers. Long before Christopher Columbus discovered North America gambling was practiced quite often amongst Native Americans (Sheppard, 2012). In fact one can trace the origins of gambling even farther back into biblical times. This is evident by the biblical verses in the Bible about the dangers of gambling and why individuals should not gamble (King James Bible Online, 2013). According to the Alberta Gambling Research Institute, â€Å"The history of gambling in Canada is inextricably linked to the Canadian Criminal Code, which in 1892 declared a complete ban on most gambling activities with the exception of horse racing†(Stevens, 2005). Over the next 77 years the Criminal Code will make many exceptions for smaller-scaled gambling, such as betting on horse races or gambling at ‘summer fair midways’ (Stevens, 2005). Eventually an amendment was made so that federal-run lotteries can be used to help fund meaningful activities, such as the 1976 Montreal Olympics. In more modern times the restrictions for gambling is much more relaxed. â€Å"Ticket lotteries, horse racing, and charitable gaming (including bingo) are currently legal in all ten provinces, Yukon Territory, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut Territory† (Stevens, 2005). Casino-style gambling is also allowed in most provinces and in all territories, as well as slot machines (Stevens, 2005). The focus of this argumentative essay will be why gambling is bad to Canadian society, and should continue being outlawed. Although one can argue that there are benefits to gambling, but this essay will look to dismiss such arguments and focus on the negative aspects of gambling. In order to go about this efficiently, this essay will look at gambling from an economical, moral and societal viewpoint. From an economic standpoint it is quite easy for one to say that gambling would improve the economy greatly. After all there are many who love nothing more than to poor their entire wallets into a machine, hoping to strike gold, not to mention that casino gambling, the highest grossing form of gambling, is the form of gambling that appeals to individuals the most (McLean, 2013). As I had mentioned previously, federal-run lotteries also helped to fun the 1976 Montreal Olympics. With all this said, gambling actually does not improve a country financially, and casinos will specifically be targeted to prove this point. Detroit is a city with 3 casinos, built with the intent of bringing in revenue to a city needing financial stability and quick income. Now, after over a decade of dumping hundreds of millions of dollars from taxes on the casinos, the city has more or less nothing to show for it. In fact, Detroit has become so financially strapped that the casinos no longer pays for anything ‘extra’, such a museum or an Olympic competition; Detroit museums instead pays for the garbage services and the electricity bill to keep the lights on the streets working (Henderson, 2012). Now one can argue that not all cities with casinos end up in financial trouble, with Las Vegas being a common example of this. The only difference with this argument is that Las Vegas has attractions that would flourish even without casinos (Henderson, 2012). In fact, the city of Toronto just recently came to its senses and decided against building a casino in the downtown area, saving the city millions of dollars that could better-used in other places (Baggage, 2013). There are many financial repercussions that come with having a casino, and although it is a wonderful argument it is not the entire focus of this essay. To touch upon how morally damaging a fact from an earlier paragraph will have to be drawn upon. In the Bible there are many passages that speak of how terrible gambling is. Now, there are many people who do not associate with the bible, and many of the historical details are debatable. With this being said, it is a fact that for many years Canada was primarily Catholic (Wallace, 1948), meaning it is religion played a major role in shaping Canadian society. With that said, one of the religious books Catholics use for moral guidelines is the Bible (Catholic Evidence Guild, 1921). Therefore, it is also indisputable that the Bible contains morals that are also right, as evident from Canadian society being sustainable and without war. Now the bible does not go into great detail as to why gambling is wrong, but one can look at today’s society and make a great case. In Canadian society there is a steady increase of problem gamblers (Problem Gambling Institute of Ontario, 2013). This problem has become a serious issue, and is, reflected in the industry growing to keep up with the demands (Koprowski, 2007). These problem gamblers are somebodies mother, father, son or daughter, which can and will affect a household in many different ways. Besides the obvious loss of money, belongings and property, there are many emotional effects as well. Many friendships are destroyed due to unpaid debts, partners do not want close contact with the person who has hurt them (Problem Gambling Institute of Ontario, 2013), and in the end the addict is left without affection in isolation. From a psychological perspective, the individual is left in isolation due to either being shunned or being too ashamed to be around others. Naturally there are extreme cases of those committing suicide after being driven to seclusion and gamblers are no exception; â€Å"1 in 5 compulsive gamblers attempts suicide and two-thirds have thought about committing suicide† (Gaultiere, 2011). From a sociological and anthropological perspective, this is proof of the family system deteriorating. In conclusion gambling is bad for Canada not only financially but socially speaking as well. Although it is unrealistic to want all forms of gambling to be illegal, there should be some form of restrictions on those who spend too much time at the casino, or something along those lines. Works Cited Baggage, M. Toronto rejects controversial downtown casino. http://www. ottawacitizen. com/news/Toronto+rejects+controversial+downtown+casino/8416596/story. html, 2013. Catholic Evidence Guild. Catholics and the Bible.http://catholiceducation. org/articles/religion/re0032. html, 1921. Gaultiere, B. Don’t Bet On It: Help For Compulsive Gamblers. http://www. newhopenow. org/notes/archive/dont_bet_on_it. html, 2011. Koprowski, G. Gambling Growing in Canada. http://www. onlinecasinocrawler. com/blog_gambling-growing-in-canada. php, 2007. McLean, J. Gambling In Canada. http://gocanada. about. com/od/thebestofcanada/tp/Gambling-In-Canada. htm, 2013. Problem Gambling Institute of Ontario. The Effects of Gambling on Families. http://www. problemgambling. ca/EN/GettingHelp/Pages/TheEffectsOfGambling. aspx, 2013. Sheppard, R. Gambling.http://www. thecanadianencyclopedia. com/articles/gambling http://www. kingjamesbibleonline. org/Jonah-1-7/, 2012. Stephen, H. Detroit has little to show for its casino revenue. http://www. freep. com/article/20120513/COL33/205130480/. Stephen-Henderson-Detroit-has-little-to-show-for-its-casino-revenue, 2012. Stevens, R. Legalized Gambling In Canada. http://www. abgamblinginstitute. ualberta. ca/en/LibraryResources/Bibliographies/LegalizedGamblinginCanada. aspx, 2005. Wallace, W. Religious History of Canada. http://faculty. marianopolis. edu/c. belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/CanadaReligiousHistory_000. htm, 1948.

Ivan Pavlov s Classical Conditioning - 1149 Words

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. A stimulus is anything that comes in through your senses. A response is anything that goes out through your muscles (anything you do). Habituation is a decrease in response to a repeated stimulus. Classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov, J. B. Watson; works on reflexes and emotional behaviors through the repeated pairing of two stimuli. Operant conditioning: E. L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner; works on all other behaviors by following a response with reinforcement or punishment. Cognitive Learning: Albert Bandura; works on any observable behavior when people learn by observing the behavior of others. Ivan Pavlov s classical conditioning In classical†¦show more content†¦This is called classical extinction. During extinction, the response will sometimes come back after a rest period. This is called spontaneous recovery. After conditioning an animal to respond to a particular stimulus, the animal will also react to other, similar stimuli. This is called generalization. Sometimes, an animal will respond to one stimulus but not to another. We call this discrimination. We can also present one stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus and another stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the animal will learn to respond to the first one and not respond to the second one. This is called discrimination training. When a person learns an emotional response through classical conditioning (such as learning to fear the sound of the dentist s drill), we call it a conditioned emotional response. The technique of systematic desensitization is based on classical extinction and can be used to help overcome fears. Mary Cover Jones used this technique to help a boy called Peter overcome his fear of rabbits. Psychologist Martin Seligman suggests that we are easily conditioned to fear things that were a threat to our ancestors, such as snakes and spiders. This is called biological preparedness. Robert Rescorla s work suggests that conditioning sometimes works better if the stimulus is logically connected to the response. Leon

Vaccinations Should Be Mandated For Everyone - 1053 Words

For many years, there has been a controversy about whether or not vaccinations should be mandated for everyone. In the United States, many diseases such as polio, diphtheria, measles, and whooping cough used to be extremely common, until vaccinations came around and started preventing these diseases. The main point for vaccines is to prepare a person’s immune system for any possible attack of a disease that comes in the future; a person’s body will be prepared to fight off the disease with the vaccine (â€Å"Basics†). Vaccines have the ability to prevent many cases of these diseases in advanced, but there are people who think vaccines are unnatural and should not be required for their children. It is said that immunity in child vaccines are about 90%-100%, which is an increase over the past few years (â€Å"Childhood†). 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